Unexpected Enemies in the Civil War: The Japanese (Part One)

By Elijah Palmer
Hampton Roads Naval Museum Educator

While the majority of the US Navy in the Civil War was involved in blockade operations along the Southern seaboard, a few ships were needed to patrol the high seas because of the success of Confederate commerce raiders. In July 1863, USS Wyoming was finishing its cruise spent searching for CSS Alabama in the Pacific. Commander David McDougal, captain of Wyoming, received orders to head  back to the United States. However, just before the crew was to leave from Yokohama, they heard of a nearby attack on the American merchant steamer, Pembroke. Perhaps contrary to expectations, the aggressor was not Raphael Semmes and the Alabama, but Japanese forces flying their national flag. This was alarming, as the United States and Japan were not at war, having signed a treaty only a few years before. 

USS Wyoming (from Official Records)

Commander McDougal

Deciding that such an affront could not go unpunished, Commander McDougal postponed his return to the United States, instead taking his ship to what he termed "the scene of the outrage."* Pembroke had been attacked near the heavily transited Shimonoseki Straits (known now as the Kanmon Straits), a key waterway between two of the main Japanese islands, Kyushu and Honshu. 

(image from http://www.shimonoseki-fc.jp/)

 USS Wyoming arrived at the straits on the morning of July 16, 1863. Near the town of Shimonoseki on the north side of the channel, the crew spotted three Japanese vessels which were identified as those that had attacked the Pembroke. Remarkably, these ships were originally American and British-built merchant vessels which had been outfitted for combat. McDougal noticed that while these ships flew the Japanese flag, they were also flying the colors of the powerful Prince of Nagato (a feudal domain also known as Choshu), who was "bitterly opposed to foreigners." This fact explained the antagonism previously displayed by these forces, who were acting independently from the Japanese government. When USS Wyoming approached these ships, previously unknown shore batteries opened fire upon it. A Japanese eyewitness onboard the American frigate reported that the fire intensified when the American flag was hoisted. The American ship was faced with fire from three ships as well as six shore batteries, yet McDougal did not back down even as most of his inexperienced crew had become "quite pale." Even though afraid, these green sailors would prove themselves this day. 

McDougal's map of the battle (From Official Records)

While the shore artillery included modern Dahlgren guns (given to the Japanese by the US), most of their shells were aimed at the center of the channel, which Wyoming dodged by hugging close to shore. For sheer number of cannon involved, the American ship was outnumbered, but was able to take advantage of better gunnery skill as the Japanese shore gunners' "aim was wild" and "their shot mostly went ten to fifteen feet overhead." Wyoming's crew returned fire with "XI-inch shell from pivot guns and solid shot from broadside guns" as it headed towards the Chosu vessels. The American ship first passed between two of the ships, a brig and a bark, exchanging broadsides at pistol range,** receiving damage and casualties, but crippling the Japanese vessels. Commander McDougal then targeted the Japanese steamer Koshin (formerly known as Lancefield), which the Wyoming's 11-inch Dahlgren cannon crews put out of action when "two well-directed shells exploded [Koshin's] boilers...proved by the vessel being immediately enveloped in steam and smoke." 

USS Wyoming (center) attacks between the Japanese ships

Koshin's (Lancefield) boiler exploding, causing an estimated 40 casualties. Wyoming to the right.

The battle was over in about an hour, with the Pembroke's attackers crippled or destroyed, and with punishment meted out to the artillery on shore as well. Wyoming suffered heavy damage, being "hulled 11 times, and with considerable damage to smokestack and rigging aloft." In addition, around a dozen sailors and marines were killed or wounded. McDougal praised his men, stating that "the conduct of the officers and crew was all I could desire." 

Due to the continued threat of CSS Alabama, USS Wyoming put off returning to the United States for another year, only arriving in Philadelphia in July 1864, in dire need of repair. However, the threat of another Confederate raider, CSS Florida, forced McDougal and his crew to return to sea. For all their likely grumbling, this endeavor proved to be short-lived as a faulty boiler prompted its return to the navy yard for repairs, likely to the crew's great appreciation. 

Commander McDougal believed that his actions against the Choshu had taught them "a lesson that will not soon be forgotten," but he was being too optimistic. European ships would continue to be harassed at the Shimonseki Straits, causing international ire and resulting in action the following year. (to be continued)

*All quotations taken from The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series 1, Vol. 2 and The Narrative of a Japanese, Vol. 1 by James Heco.
** Sailors and marines shot "100 rounds of musket-ball cartridges, 50 of Sharps rifle ball cartridges, 50 pistol-ball cartridges, 50 revolver cartridges."

Artifact of the Month: Divine Military Gear

In 1951, Lieutenant James E. Norton, CHC, is hoisted onto an awaiting H-03C after holding Sunday morning Catholic services aboard the cruiser USS Newport News (CA-148), a ship designed before rotary-wing aircraft came into common use.  From the very beginning, U.S. Navy Chaplains have had to find a way to serve Sailors and Marines wherever they serve. (National Archives photo via Naval History and Heritage Command/ Flickr)   

The second article of Navy regulations as adopted by the Continental Congress on November 28, 1775, specifies that:

"The Commanders of the ships of the thirteen United Colonies, are to take care that divine service be performed twice a day on board, and a sermon preached on Sundays, unless bad weather or other extraordinary accidents prevent."

The regulation did not specify just who would conduct the services, and during those years ordained clergy would simply accompany ships at sea whenever possible.  A professionalized chaplaincy would not come into being until after "An Act to Provide a Naval Armament" was passed by Congress on March 27, 1794, which specified that "there should be employed on board each of the said ships of 44 guns... one chaplain."

Although uniform regulations and other details about the roles of chaplains would not come about for another generation, no amount of regulations could encompass what logistical constraints members of the Navy Chaplain Corps have had to overcome in the almost 240 years since their founding. As in every other category of military mission, however, American industry has met the challenge of providing gear that is tough enough to withstand the arduous duties its users perform in times of war and peace, and that includes the duties of Chaplains.  For your enlightenment this month we proudly display two Korean War-era field kits for performing divine services wherever the need arises.  

The "Protestant/Catholic Chaplain Kit" includes the case, Ciborium, bottle for wine, communion stand with cups, bread plate, Bible/missive holder, a set of two bottles/cruets for water/oil, a cross/crucifix, candles with holders, followers and stands, a paten, an intinction cup/chalice paten, a chalice, three corporals and three altar cloths.

Newly-commissioned Chaplains of the early-1950s would be issued kits such as these, specific to their religious affiliations, as much as was practicable at the time.  For example, the Protestant kit shown was designed also to be usable for Catholic services.

In the "Jewish Chaplain Kit," the case acts as the Ark, with two covers and a detachable bottom; a Torah with cover; two prayer shawls, Yarmulkes; a Yad; a Bimah (velvet cover); several sets of candles with holders and stands; and a Kiddush cup with cap.

On May 7, 1952, Lieutenant August F. Mendonsa, CHC, USNR, assisted by Corporal Alvin J. McGee, USMC, sets up an altar on sand bags in preparation for mass at the front lines in Korea. (U.S. Navy Photo by Aviation Photographer's Mate 3rd Class H.W.H. Aring/ NHHC Photo via Flickr)

Lieutenant August F. Mendonsa, CHC, USNR, conducts a Communion Service for a company of Marines posted on the front lines in Korea.  It is likely that Mendonsa's field altar case is at the lower left of the frame. (U.S. Navy Photo by Aviation Photographer's Mate 3rd Class H.W.H. Aring/ NHHC Photo via Flickr)

Known alternately as portable altars, field altars, or field kits, by the end of the Second World War, these indispensable implements of the chaplaincy were designed and built with such a high degree of combat readiness that many were designed to float and also be attached to a pistol belt or rucksack so that chaplains could even carry them during parachute jumps and amphibious landings.

Our current Artifact of the Month display at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum (Photo by HRNM Public Information Officer Susanne Greene)

During the over 60 years since these two kits were made, our military has become much more diverse.  Today's chaplains might carry kits not only made to provide Catholic, Jewish and Protestant services, but also to serve Muslim and Orthodox Christian service members as well, enabling them to provide worship opportunities regardless of faith or denomination.

Wherever called upon, regardless of the difficulties or dangers, U.S. Navy Chaplains have been right with the Sailors and Marines they serve, from the calm of peacetime patrols to the thick of combat, right from the beginning.  These artifacts are a testament to their ability to serve a higher calling anywhere, any time, with the tools they are given.

The Last Civil War Monitor

By Elijah Palmer
Hampton Roads Naval Museum Educator

The Jamestown Exposition in 1907 was filled with many sights to see. From the vendors selling souvenirs along the "War Path" to the Baby Incubator Exhibit to the popular "Merrimac-Monitor" building, guests had many options to fill their visit. But a significant focus of the exposition was on the modern fleet that had been built up under the guidance of Teddy Roosevelt. Indeed, it was from Hampton Roads that the Great White Fleet would begin their grand round-the-world tour. Several of these ships were anchored off Sewells Point, showcasing the Navy's modernity. Yet one Navy vessel was in stark contrast to the new white ships surrounding it. The odd one out was the last remaining Civil War monitor, USS Canonicus. 

USS Canonicus at the Jamestown Exposition in 1907. Note the many naval vessels in the background (Library of Congress photo)

Over 40 years old by that point, USS Canonicus had seen better days, but was an approximate example of Ericsson's invention that had made history on March 9, 1862 in the waters of Hampton Roads. In fact, some souvenir photographs claimed that this was one in the same craft, both forgetting history and pointedly ignoring the bold white letters displayed on Canonicus' side (perhaps this was simply for profit as the pictures were from an angle that hides the lettering). But to confuse this monitor with the original one was shortchanging Canonicus' own exploits. 

Built in Boston as the first in her class, USS Canonicus was sent to join the James River Flotilla in the spring of 1864. The crew of the ironclad spent over six months patrolling and engaging Confederate defenses with their dual 15-inch Dahlgren guns, often coordinating with sister ships such as the ill-fated USS Tecumseh. In December 1864, Canonicus was sent to join the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron as it prepared to assault Fort Fisher in North Carolina. 

During the first attack on Fort Fisher (December 24-25, 1864), Canonicus fired nearly 150 shots, receiving only a handful in return from the Confederate defenders. The attempt to capture this formidable fort failed, largely due to poor coordination between the Army and naval forces, as well as overconfidence in the effectiveness and accuracy of the shore bombardment. 
The second assault on the fort started on January 13, 1865. The naval part of this attack was a massive armada of over 40 ships on the firing line, with over a dozen more in reserve. While all ships were moved in closer to achieve better accuracy, Canonicus and three other monitors were positioned nearest to the fort. The gun crews on Canonicus fired nearly 300 shells during the three days of battle, with most being expended on the 13th. However, due to its proximity to the Confederate batteries, the monitor was hit nearly 40 times. While no significant damage or casualties occurred, the ship's flag was shot down twice. Both times, Quartermaster Daniel Stevens replaced the colors under the heavy fire from Fort Fisher's guns. He was awarded the Medal of Honor for these actions. 

An illustration from 1907 showing Stevens' actions. The caption is a bit confusing, but perhaps should read "For the third time the flag was raised" as Stevens only replaced it twice, but it was originally raised for battle. 

Near the end of the war, Canonicus and a handful of other ships were sent to Cuba in search of the feared oceangoing Confederate ironclad ram CSS Stonewall. However by the time the ships arrived, the Confederate vessel had been surrendered to the Cuban government as the war had ended. Serving off and on until the late 1870s, the monitor was put into reserve until its last moment to shine at the Jamestown Exposition came in 1907. Canonicus, the last remaining Civil War monitor, was scrapped in 1908, finally closing that chapter of naval history.

The monitor shown sandwiched between the "ABCD ship" Dolphin and Admiral Dewey's flagship Olympia in this 1898 poster hanging in the museum's gallery. (photo by HRNM educator Joseph Miechle)

Who Was Samuel Boush?

By Joseph Miechle
Hampton Roads Naval Museum Educator

As you make your way to the Hampton Roads Naval Museum in Downtown Norfolk, you are likely to cross Boush Street at some point.  As you take in some of the city's other attractions and sights along the way, you might ask yourself, “Why is this street named Boush Street and who was that guy anyway?"

McCullough's Docks, 1902.  At the end of City Hall Avenue, present-day Boush Street is located approximately where the bridge in the center of the photograph crosses the water. (Image from the Chrysler Museum of Art exhibit Crossroads: Transportation in Norfolk)

Much of what we now know as Norfolk was deliberately planned out from the very beginning. Originally “Old Norfolk” consisted of eight distinct parts, one of which was purchased by Mr. Samuel Boush, a prominent citizen of Norfolk who contributed significantly to the city's early development.

Norfolk's historic 1739 Borough Church as it appeared after it was renovated, equipped with a wooden cupola and renamed St. Paul's Episcopal Church in 1832.  To the left are the Cumberland Street Methodist and Baptist churches. The spire over the latter is that of the Old Christ Church on Freemason Street. (Print by John Childs after a drawing by J.L. Meyer.  St. Paul’s Church of Norfolk by The Altar Guild of St. Paul’s Church. Norfolk, Virginia, 1934)

Boush donated land in the southeast portion of his tract for the use of St. Paul’s Church. He was appointed Norfolk’s first mayor by King George II in 1736. He also contributed the bricks for St. Paul’s construction.  He would not make an impact as mayor or see the church construction finished, however, as he died only months after becoming mayor in November 1736. The westernmost street, as laid out in his parcel of land, still bears his family name.

Originally, Boush Street ran roughly north to south ending at Bute Street to the north and Town Back Creek to the south. Town Back Creek (or just Back Creek) originally ran west to east along roughly what is now City Hall Avenue. The photograph from the early 1900s shows the Boush Street bridge crossing what would later become City Hall Avenue.  Boush Street currently extends south to Town Point Park and the Hampton Roads Naval Museum.  From there it turns east and its name changes to Waterside Drive.  It also extends north to Virginia Beach Boulevard, where the road continues north but changes names to Llewellyn Avenue.

Prior to expanding to its current boundaries, the City of Norfolk  was surrounded by other smaller boroughs. Samuel Boush also owned land north and east of the 1700’s Norfolk city boundaries. This area also bore a street with the Boush name, however it was renamed after the annex, so as to not be confused with the current Boush Street.

The unpublished Nimmo Map, appx. 1800 copy of 1762 map. (Courtesy of Slover Library SMC Collection, Norfolk Public Library)

The map shown above is an early copy of an original drawn by Gershom Nimmo in 1762. When Samuel Boush died in 1736, his will gave the land to his grandson, also named Samuel Boush.  The grandson had the map commissioned with detailed measurements and lot numbers.  St. Paul’s churchyard is seen in the southeast corner.  It may be difficult to place the map into modern context but currently MacArthur Mall occupies the majority of the land on the Nimmo map between Brewer Street to Cumberland Street and Freemason Street to Sycamore Street.

Photo of assumed Samuel Boush burial site at St. Paul’s Church, Norfolk, VA. (Photo by HRNM Educator Elijah Palmer)

While it is known that the first Samuel Boush is buried in the church yard at St. Paul's church, the exact location is currently not known. What is known is was summed up by Bishop Meade in his 1857 book, Old Churches of Virginia, which refers to the “[Samuel Boush] tombstone at the door of the church."  Could the photograph above be the final resting place of Samuel Boush? The church hopes to find definitive proof through archaeological research in the future.

Special thanks to City Historian Peggy Haile McPhillips and archivist Troy Valos of the Norfolk Public Library.