Pirates and Privateering in the New World

By Reece Nortum
Hampton Roads Naval Museum Educator

Piracy and Privateering, a specialized category of officially sanctioned piracy defined as "activities by armed privately-owned vessel(s) commissioned for war service by a government," presented a threat in the waters of the New World going back to the earliest days of colonization.  Many of the new colonies had a large number of people turn to privateering due to the harsh times they were facing ashore, made worse after needed supply ships were either lost at sea or to attacks by foreign pirates or privateers just off shore.

Examples of pirate flags from (left) the late-18th Century, and the early 19th Century (right). 

Piracy and privateering in the waters of the New World continued to be a constant danger to American shipping for two more centuries, even after the American Revolution. The threat to American merchant shipping from privateers dramatically increased after the beginning of the French Revolution, a decade-long period of political upheaval that began in 1789. 

On January 2, 1794, the House of Representatives had voted to authorize building a Navy in order to meet the challenges posed by French privateers in the Caribbean and Atlantic, as well as others operating in the Mediterranean from bases in North Africa.  Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships. To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill because of the high costs, with the government still in the substantial debt incurred during the Revolutionary War, the Federalist Party inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction if the Treaty of Tripoli was signed.  A diplomatic settlement with the Barbary States in North Africa would potentially make the Mediterranean shipping lanes more secure for American merchant vessels, negating the need for a large, expensive navy.  Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli being signed. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued.  However, President Washington requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed.  Later an agreement was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates. The three frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution, were ultimately chosen, while construction was halted on the Chesapeake, Congress, and President, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage. 


During the presidency of John Adams (1797-1801), "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!" became the rallying cry of the Federalists as Adams ordered the completion of the three frigates that had had been under construction since 1794: United States, Constellation, and Constitution.  

Completing these vessels became imperative, not because of a collapse of the accord with the Barbary States, but because of a new threat to American merchant vessels posed by an erstwhile ally.  French privateers were preying upon American shipping in the Atlantic and Caribbean.  Congress also authorized 1,000 privateers as additional security forces for the ports and shipping channels to defend against French aggression.  By May 1798, the 24 gun man-of-war USS Ganges, a former merchant vessel purchased and pressed into naval service, was guarding the coast between Long Island and Chesapeake Bay, and was later joined by USS Constellation and USS United States.  

Congress rescinded all post-Revolutionary War peace treaties with France that were originally signed on September 3, 1783.  The regime that had signed the treaties was swept away in the chaos and upheaval of the French Revolution nearly six years later, and the current French foreign minister had demanded $250,000 in gifts, and $6 million in loans.  After his request was denied by President Adams, France began sending privateer ships to conduct piracy in order to get what France felt they deserved.  In July 1798, USS Delaware was patrolling the shipping lanes and captured the French privateer La Croyable off Egg Harbor, New Jersey, as she preyed upon merchant shipping.  Soon afterward, Congress authorized American warships to conduct offensive operations against French privateers.  Following this order, the US Navy sent 25 ships to the Caribbean to conduct counter-piracy operations.

  The so-called "Quasi-War" with France began as an effort to defeat French privateers, but ships of the rejuvenated American Navy also fought French naval vessels.  In this painting by John William Schmidt, USS Constellation battles French frigate L'Insurgente in the Caribbean in February 1799. (Naval History and Heritage Command Image)

The most famous battles involved the frigate USS Constellation, a 38-gun ship commanded by Thomas Truxtun.  The first of many engagements occurred on February 9, 1799, which involved the 36-gun L'Insurgente, a larger and more heavily armed vessel.  Commanded by Captain Michel-Pierre Barreaut, the French frigate had plagued American shipping for years.  The bold, largely unchallenged French attempted to board USS Constellation, but Truxtun was able to maneuver away and fire on L'Insurgente, leading to Captain Barreaut's surrender.  Almost a year later, February 1, 1800, USS Constellation engaged the 52-gun frigate La Vengeance.  Constellation pounded the French ship for five hours, but La Vengeance was able to escape under the cover of darkness that night. From New York to Havana, these long shipping lanes continued to be patrolled by American vessels until piracy was all but eliminated in this part of the world in the 1830s.

Battleship Squadron Leaves For Mexico, 1914

A newspaper photograph of Atlantic Fleet battleships deploying from Hampton Roads to Mexico,
April 15, 1914.  It should be noted that the newspaper's caption have the wrong ship names.

One hundred years ago yesterday, acting on instructions from President Woodrow Wilson, Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels ordered the Hampton Roads-based ships of the Atlantic Fleet to mobilize and head to the east coast of Mexico. The first squadron to deploy included the new battleships USS Arkansas (BB-33), USS Utah (BB-31), and Florida (BB-30); the older battleships USS New Jersey (BB-16) and USS New Hampshire (BB-25); and the dispatch boat/armed yacht USS Yankton. Daniels had specifically ordered the squadron to Tampico and Vera Cruz. Daniels deployed the squadron of heavy ships to reinforce a smaller squadron already on the scene.

The deployment of American battleships came from a culmination of a series of international incidents. A few days before, Mexican authorities had arrested several American sailors in Tampico, and later a Marine who got lost while trying to deliver official mail. These arrests occurred during the latest civil war in Mexico. There was also an American belief that European powers were attempting to intervene in the war. Thus, tensions between Mexico and the United States were high.

Mexican authorities agreed to release the American servicemen, but some senior U.S. Naval officers, and later President Wilson himself, beleived American honor had been insulted. They demanded official apology and a 21-gun salute to the American flag by the Mexican government. When the Mexican reply to the American demands was not forthcoming quickly enough, Wilson put the Navy's ships on alert.

While Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt commented to the press that the Navy was prepared for anything, there is evidence that the mobilization order caught the Atlantic Fleet somewhat off guard. Several of the ships were not prepared for an extended deployment. New Hampshire's sailors, for example, worked through the night and early morning of April 15 loading 1,600 tons of coal on board. The Navy quickly called up all sailors stationed at St. Helena Naval Training Station and on board the local receiving ships Franklin and Richmond, regardless of rate, sea experience, or enlistment status, to fill in personnel gaps. Many other ships in the Atlantic Fleet were not ready, including the battleships Texas (BB-35) and Delaware (BB-28) and several repair vessels and coal colliers.

Even though the initial operation was only a partial mobilization of the Atlantic Fleet, the five battleships' deployment raised American jingoism to a fever pitch. Most Americans fully supported the deployment and even offered to help in their own special way. The Governor of Texas, for example, offered to invade Mexico on behalf of the United States. The President politely declined.

1913 Live Fire Exercises in the Chesapeake Bay: Chicken Farmers Not Pleased...Again

Atlantic Fleet battleships steaming from Hampton Roads towards the
"Southern Drill Grounds" in the Chesapeake Bay, 1913

We have previously posted about Maryland poultry farmers accusing the Navy of killing over 70,000 chickens during live fire exercise off Tangier Island in 1911. The farmers claimed that the big battleship guns caused such a concussion shock on shore that the poor chickens keeled over and died. The Navy denied having anything to do with the alleged chicken massacre. Two years later, the Navy was back with more ships and bigger guns.

The Atlantic Fleet at the Southern Drill Grounds as seen
from the cage mast of USS Kansas (BB-21)

The operation was one of the largest Naval exercises to date.  Navy planners plotted out a series of static target gun shoots and war games between ships in an area they designated as the "Southern Drill Grounds" in the Chesapeake Bay.  Planners preferred the Chesapeake Bay due to the fact that it provided favorable weather conditions. They wanted the water to be somewhat rough to give gunners the chance to practice in choppy water, but not so rough as to cancel the exercise.   


USS Kansas unloads her 12-inch guns at a stationary target

In late March 1913, the Atlantic Fleet arrived near Tangier Island in full force. Rear Admiral Charles Johnson Badger led a force that consisted of the new dreadnought-type battleships USS Wyoming (BB-32), Utah (BB-31), Delaware (BB-28), and South Carolina (BB-26), along with the pre-dreadnought-type battleships USS Kansas (BB-21), Minnesota(BB-22), Georgia (BB-15), New Jersey (BB-16), and Nebraska (BB-12). In addition to the battleships, two divisions of torpedo boat and torpedo boat destroyers joined the battle force, along with several support ships such as coal tenders and store ships. 

12-inch shell explosions during live fire drills

The fleet conducted several rounds of live fire shoots with their main guns in late March and early April. The torpedo boat divisions practiced torpedo attack runs on the battleships during the middle of the night. Several senior naval officers served as observers and kept score of hits and misses of the stationary targets and determined the success of the torpedo boats against the battleships. Witnessed by several U.S. Senators and Secretary of the Josephus Daniels, the exercises were by all accounts a success.

With their round of shooting done, officers on board Kansas
observe other battleships' firings. 

That is not how local Marylanders saw it. Like the 1911 operation, Maryland civilians who lived near Tangier Island claimed the battleship gun shoots were having a devastating affect on their town and their agribusiness. One newspaper reported that buildings in Chrisfield, Maryland had their shattered windows and cracked foundations. The newspaper even claimed some of their chimneys were knocked off. In addition, Chrisfield watermen claimed the concussion waves killed thousands of fish.  They were also afraid of getting hit by stray shells. Local poultry farmers claimed that eggs cracked and were hatching prematurely. The Navy had no comment on these allegations.

German Warships and President Taft in Hampton Roads, 1912

USS Idaho (BB-24) waiting for the German squadron east of Hampton Roads

Those who hold public office know that one must be careful when making a comment within earshot of the media.  In 1910, the battleship USS Minnesota (BB-22) made a port call in England. During an official reception, the mayor of London asked Minnesota's commanding officer, the always outspoken Captain William Simms, what the United States would do if England were attacked by a foreign power. Simms responded, "It is my opinion that you may count on every man, every dollar, every drop of blood of kindred from across the sea."


The German dreadnought SMS Molkte near Fort Monore

This statement infuriated Kaiser Wilhelm who naturally believed he was speaking of the German Empire. Relations between Germany and the United States were lukewarm at best in the early 20th century, particularly with Germany's increased involvement in the Western Hemisphere. Thus, President Howard Taft had to publicly reprimand Simms and apologize to the Kaiser in person.  But that was not good enough for German diplomats. The diplomats also noted in their official protest that the American Navy frequently visited France and Great Britain, but never Germany. 

The German Squadron from left to right-The cruisers SMS

Stettin and Bremen and the battleship Molkte.

The Germans demanded a public showing of goodwill between the United States and the Germans.  Taft agreed. In the Summer 1911, the Navy's Second Division of the Atlantic Fleet travelled to Kiel, Germany where the Kaiser and the entire German fleet greeted them.

In the Summer 1912, the German Navy reciprocated the visit with three ships, the cruisers SMS Stettin and Bremen and the brand new dreadnought-type battleship SMS Moltke. Realizing that Taft was in the middle of a reelection, the Kaiser wanted to send the ships as not to cause distraction to the American election season. Thus he sent them to Hampton Roads from Kiel in May 1912. The three ship squadron arrived off the Virginia Capes in late May, and were saluted by USS Idaho (BB-24) upon arrival. Two divisions of U.S. Battleships lined Hampton Roads to greet the Germans, including Utah (BB-31), Michigan (BB-27), Delaware (BB-28), and South Carolina (BB-26).

The Presidential yacth Mayflower entering Hampton Roads
and approaching the line of U.S. battleships on the left and
the German squadron on  the right.


Taft arrived in the Presidential yacht Mayflower and boarded Molkte. There, Vice Admiral Hubert von Rebeur-Paschwitz greeted the President and his entourage and personally gave him a tour of the ship. Taft remarked "Admiral, I'm glad to welcome you and to have an opportunity of visiting the Moltke, of the finest ships I have ever seen." Upon leaving the ship, Moltke's band struck up the "Star Spangled Banner." Once the Hampton Roads' festivities were over, the senior staff of the German ships proceed to Washington and New York City where they were wined and dined by America's leading politicians and business leaders.

The Washington, D.C. photo studio of Harris and Ewing followed the President to Hampton Roads and took these very vivid shots of the President, the U.S. Navy and the German squadron. Many more of the studio's collection can be found at the Library of Congress' website.

President Taft being given a tour of Moltke by German Vice Admiral Hubert von Rebuer-Pachswitch

1820 View of Norfolk and the Gosport Navy Yard

This print is entitled Norfolk, As Seen from Gosport, VA.  It is currently in storage, but hope to get it out on public display soon.  Originally painted by English artist Joshua Shaw and engraved by John Hill in 1820, M. Carey & Son of Philadelphia published the print in 1834.  The print presents a view of Norfolk and the Gosport Shipyard from the Elizabeth River, looking north.  On the building ways is a warship that is believed to be the ship-of-the-line Delaware.  Shaw and Hill produced the work as part of a book entitled Pictuesque Views of American Scenery.  This publication contained about twenty different landscape scenes from different places in the United States.  See the entire book here at the New York Public Library's website.

As Shaw's and Hill's goal was to show off the natural beauty of his subjects, Norfolk, As Seen from Gosport, VA produced a much softer view of the Gosport Shipyard, which even in 1820 was a major military instillation, than most illustrations of the yard.  The result is a depiction of Gosport not as a center of industrial activity, but more of a pleasant, peaceful vacation spot.  This interpretation was in line with a school of artistic thinking, that both men subscribed too, that called for detail and emphases on nature.

Joshua Shaw was more or less a self-taught artist.  Born into poverty, he worked as a mail carrier as a teenager to make ends meet.  On the side, he took art commissions such as a painting of the Ten Commandants for the local church.  Another artist took him on as a student.  But Shaw upstaged his master in talent and the teacher kicked him out of his house.   Forced to return to steady work again, this time in construction, he soon landed enough wealthy clients in London to be a full time artist.

Shaw also had talent as an inventor.  After immigrating to America, he invented and patented the world's first fulminated mercury percussion cap for rifled muskets.  The invention made discharging a firearm's blackpowder much easier and efficient.  Most of the world's armies, including the United States, adopted his invention for their rifles.  He also invented new firing locks for cannons, which the British Army adopted. 

His artistic partner, John Hill was a skilled artist in his own right.  Shortly after moving to America from England as a boy, his father taught him the engraving trade. He worked closely with many of the country's best known artists and print shops for over sixty years.  He also produced several original pieces of art work, specializing in landscape scenes. 

Navy Accused of Killing 70,000 Chickens, 1911

We previously posted about the 1911 live fire exercise Atlantic Fleet battleships conducted in the Cheseapeake Bay.  The Navy used the event to train sailors in marksmanship and to test the effectiveness of new ordnance.  The Navy also invited members of the national press to witness the exercise.  The battleships New Hampshire (BB-25), Delaware (BB-28), Kansas (BB-21), and others participated in the mass bombardment of the battleship San Marcos (ex-USS Texas) near Tangier Island.  Except for a disturbance caused by some of New Hampshire's sailors, the operation went very well.  That is, until the Navy read this headline:

We are still trying to confirm this rather bizarre story.

Print of USS Delaware at Dry Dock Number 1

This is a print of the 74-gun ship-of-the-line USS Delaware at Dry Dock Number 1 at Gosport Navy Yard.  It illustrates the first dry docking in North America.  The print is in the museum's Age of Sail gallery.   Published by the firm Childs and Inman of Philadelphia, the artist sketched the original illustration on stone.   At the bottom of the prints reads a dedication: "To the Officers, Sailors, and Marines, this View of the Delaware 74, Secured in the Dry dock U.S. Navy Yard Gosport, Dedicated with Great Respect (Signed) Joseph Goldsborough Bruff."

The illustration is a popular print that has been reproduced many times and in many different forms.   Some of the prints, like the museum's copy, are in the original black and white, while some were published in full color.  Bruff produced variations on this illustration.  One, for example, shows the ship dramatically entering the dry dock (shown below).  Another shows the ship in the dry dock, but with the crowd of Naval officers removed and Marines standing guard in their place. 

Bruff took great license with the first variation.  In the print, he shows a large crowd of people witnessing the battleship entering the dry dock.  Unfortunately, few people actually witnessed the event due to the local newspapers both reporting that it would take place at 10 a.m., instead of the actual time of 8:45.

The print illustrates one of the great milestones not only for Gosport and the U.S. Navy, but for the United States as a whole.  As part of the post-War of 1812 naval expansion, Congress authorized a dry dock for Gosport and one for the Boston Navy Yard in 1824.  Both dry-docks were finished in 1833.  However, Gosport beat Boston by one week for the title "First dry-docking in North America," much to the embarrassment of the Secretary of the Navy Levi Woodbury.  The SECNAV had informed President Andrew Jackson, Vice-President Martin Van Buren, and Governor of Massachusetts Levi Lincoln, Jr., that Boston was going to be first and that they should attend in person.

The print represents one of Bruff's early works as an artist, though it does not seem he ever had any formal schooling.   At the time of this event, Bruff was working as a draftsman at the Yard.  He soon quit this job to serve on John Fremont's expedition to explore California and the West.  Ever the restless spirit, he later quit that job to open up his own gold mine.  He later published Gold Rush: The Journals, Drawings, and Other Papers of J. Goldsborough Bruff based on his experiences and it is considered to be one of the finest accounts of the California Gold Rush ever written.  He returned to Government service for the remainder of his life to serve as one of the Department of the Treasury’s senior architects.

Builder's Half-Model-USS Delaware

This is the builder's half-model of the Gosport-built 74-gun ship-of-the-line USS Delaware. Designed shortly after the War of 1812, the model is one of the oldest artifacts in the museum. While it looks very simple, the ship’s architect built the model with the intent of it being used by the shipyard’s workers as a construction guide.
The ship builder would take a model like this, put it on the floor, and start making drawings on the floor in proportion to the actual size of the ship. If the builder found any errors in the ship designer’s original calculations, he could then make corrections to the math before the keel was laid and heavy construction began.

As many half-models ended up in the fireplace once workers finished, these type of models are rare. The museum is very appreciative to the Navy's Curator of Ship Models (the legal custodian for all Department of the Navy ship models) for loaning and allowing us to display models like this.