Unexpected Enemies in the Civil War: The Japanese (Part Two)

By Elijah Palmer
Hampton Roads Naval Museum Educator

Shortly after USS Wyoming's attack on Shimonoseki, the French also launched a punitive strike with two ships and some marines against the anti-foreign Choshu clan holding the straits. However, this was only a minor setback for the rebel Japanese and the important trading passage remained closed to foreign ships. For the time being, negotiations replaced military action in trying to resolve the issue.

USS Jamestown (from Official Records)

The situation in Japan remained uncertain for many months in late 1863 and early 1864. The Choshu and other anti-foreign factions were opposing the Japanese government in many places. The situation was dangerous for non-Japanese, as they were attacked in many instances (the American minister to Japan had to be protected by troops). Various foreign governments attempted to negotiate with the Prince of Nagato (Choshu), but met with little success. By May 1864, the American minister to Japan requested Captain Cicero Price to bring the Gosport-built USS Jamestown to Yokohama as soon as possible "in view of the probability of a combined movement against the Prince of Nagato."* It seemed at this point that the Europeans and Americans were getting tired of fruitless negotiations as the Shimonoseki Straits remained closed. In July, Price reported that war was being threatened, as the British and Dutch were massing ships and troops. The next month, an American steamer was attacked near the Choshu lands, which did not surprise Price: "[He] is the most rebellious of the daimios, and it is he whom the combined treaty powers propose to attack."

The international fleet at Yokohama in 1864. Photograph by famed photographer Felice Beato, who would accompany the U.S. Navy's expedition to Korea in 1871 (from ocw.mit.edu)

Deeming that the straits could "only be opened by force," the treaty powers planned their attack. The British had nine ships, the Dutch had four and the French had three, but Jamestown was the only available American ship. However, the strong currents at Shimonoseki meant that the sailing sloop, lacking steam engines, would be nearly worthless in fleet maneuvers in those tight quarters. Yet the other foreign governments "wished...that the American flag should appear in the strait on the occasion of the attack...to show that we were in accord with the movement."

After thinking over the situation, Price and the American minister chartered a merchant vessel, the Ta-Kiang for the purpose of "carry[ing] a landing party, and in any and every way to assist in the common object," all while staying out of range of the enemy cannons (the owners of the Ta-Kiang had to protect their investment). Price sent a crew of 18 under the command of Lieutenant Fredrick Pearson, along with a 30-pound Parrott rifle, to the merchant ship. Pearson was ordered to defer to the British admiral in charge of the expedition and to do whatever was necessary in supporting the attack, with the caveat that Ta-Kiang was "not a man-of war, or prepared to attack the forts."

A 30-pound Parrott Rifle on a naval carriage (from Cincinnati Museum Center)

On September 4, 1864, the international fleet arrived at the entrance to the Shimonoseki Straits. The next afternoon, the fleet moved closer to the Japanese shore batteries and both sides opened fire. The battle lasted for over an hour, until the batteries were silenced. A British night landing took care of some of the guns as well. The battle was resumed early on the morning of September 6, with more cannon fire. At 8:30 a.m., Ta-Kiang towed two boats close to shore as part of a general landing. Pearson later reported that the crew fired eighteen shells from the Parrott rifle, so it is likely that these shots were fired in support of the landing. British, French and Dutch troops captured the Japanese batteries by noon, although they were contested throughout the day. Some of the wounded European troops were transported aboard Ta-Kiang as well.  

A Japanese depiction of the battle

European troops with a captured Japanese battery

The "gunboat diplomacy" of the treaty powers worked, as the rebellious Prince of Nagato agreed to open the straits to "all ships of all countries." In addition, he was forced to promise that the destroyed batteries would not be rebuilt. To ensure compliance of this new agreement, the Europeans left three warships to patrol the area. While not playing a terribly major role in this engagement, the American sailors "[performed their] part to the satisfaction of all concerned." They were able to contribute to the mission, and more importantly "show the flag," which the Navy has often done across the globe. 

*All quotations taken from The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series 1, Vol. 3.

Unexpected Enemies in the Civil War: The Japanese (Part One)

By Elijah Palmer
Hampton Roads Naval Museum Educator

While the majority of the US Navy in the Civil War was involved in blockade operations along the Southern seaboard, a few ships were needed to patrol the high seas because of the success of Confederate commerce raiders. In July 1863, USS Wyoming was finishing its cruise spent searching for CSS Alabama in the Pacific. Commander David McDougal, captain of Wyoming, received orders to head  back to the United States. However, just before the crew was to leave from Yokohama, they heard of a nearby attack on the American merchant steamer, Pembroke. Perhaps contrary to expectations, the aggressor was not Raphael Semmes and the Alabama, but Japanese forces flying their national flag. This was alarming, as the United States and Japan were not at war, having signed a treaty only a few years before. 

USS Wyoming (from Official Records)

Commander McDougal

Deciding that such an affront could not go unpunished, Commander McDougal postponed his return to the United States, instead taking his ship to what he termed "the scene of the outrage."* Pembroke had been attacked near the heavily transited Shimonoseki Straits (known now as the Kanmon Straits), a key waterway between two of the main Japanese islands, Kyushu and Honshu. 

(image from http://www.shimonoseki-fc.jp/)

 USS Wyoming arrived at the straits on the morning of July 16, 1863. Near the town of Shimonoseki on the north side of the channel, the crew spotted three Japanese vessels which were identified as those that had attacked the Pembroke. Remarkably, these ships were originally American and British-built merchant vessels which had been outfitted for combat. McDougal noticed that while these ships flew the Japanese flag, they were also flying the colors of the powerful Prince of Nagato (a feudal domain also known as Choshu), who was "bitterly opposed to foreigners." This fact explained the antagonism previously displayed by these forces, who were acting independently from the Japanese government. When USS Wyoming approached these ships, previously unknown shore batteries opened fire upon it. A Japanese eyewitness onboard the American frigate reported that the fire intensified when the American flag was hoisted. The American ship was faced with fire from three ships as well as six shore batteries, yet McDougal did not back down even as most of his inexperienced crew had become "quite pale." Even though afraid, these green sailors would prove themselves this day. 

McDougal's map of the battle (From Official Records)

While the shore artillery included modern Dahlgren guns (given to the Japanese by the US), most of their shells were aimed at the center of the channel, which Wyoming dodged by hugging close to shore. For sheer number of cannon involved, the American ship was outnumbered, but was able to take advantage of better gunnery skill as the Japanese shore gunners' "aim was wild" and "their shot mostly went ten to fifteen feet overhead." Wyoming's crew returned fire with "XI-inch shell from pivot guns and solid shot from broadside guns" as it headed towards the Chosu vessels. The American ship first passed between two of the ships, a brig and a bark, exchanging broadsides at pistol range,** receiving damage and casualties, but crippling the Japanese vessels. Commander McDougal then targeted the Japanese steamer Koshin (formerly known as Lancefield), which the Wyoming's 11-inch Dahlgren cannon crews put out of action when "two well-directed shells exploded [Koshin's] boilers...proved by the vessel being immediately enveloped in steam and smoke." 

USS Wyoming (center) attacks between the Japanese ships

Koshin's (Lancefield) boiler exploding, causing an estimated 40 casualties. Wyoming to the right.

The battle was over in about an hour, with the Pembroke's attackers crippled or destroyed, and with punishment meted out to the artillery on shore as well. Wyoming suffered heavy damage, being "hulled 11 times, and with considerable damage to smokestack and rigging aloft." In addition, around a dozen sailors and marines were killed or wounded. McDougal praised his men, stating that "the conduct of the officers and crew was all I could desire." 

Due to the continued threat of CSS Alabama, USS Wyoming put off returning to the United States for another year, only arriving in Philadelphia in July 1864, in dire need of repair. However, the threat of another Confederate raider, CSS Florida, forced McDougal and his crew to return to sea. For all their likely grumbling, this endeavor proved to be short-lived as a faulty boiler prompted its return to the navy yard for repairs, likely to the crew's great appreciation. 

Commander McDougal believed that his actions against the Choshu had taught them "a lesson that will not soon be forgotten," but he was being too optimistic. European ships would continue to be harassed at the Shimonseki Straits, causing international ire and resulting in action the following year. (to be continued)

*All quotations taken from The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series 1, Vol. 2 and The Narrative of a Japanese, Vol. 1 by James Heco.
** Sailors and marines shot "100 rounds of musket-ball cartridges, 50 of Sharps rifle ball cartridges, 50 pistol-ball cartridges, 50 revolver cartridges."

USS Indiana (BB-58) Tompion

This photograph of the cat mascot from USS Wyoming (BB-32) shows the cat sitting above a tompion.

Tompions (pronounced “tom-kin”) are muzzle plugs for keeping dirt and debris out of artillery guns. Throughout history they have been made from a variety of materials, but in the last century, the most common materials used were solid metal or wood covered with metal. 

USS Indiana (BB-58) tompion in HRNM's gallery.

This particular tompion (above) is comprised of a wood plug, sheathed in copper with a star decoration in the center. It is from the USS Indiana (BB-58), a South Dakota-class battleship and the last battleship built by Newport News Shipbuilding. Commissioned in 1942, the ship spent most of the next few years of war in the Pacific Theater, supporting aircraft carriers and amphibious landings.

In European Navies, especially the Royal Navy, tompions have often been highly ornate. Compared to the Royal Navy, the United States Navy’s tompions are covered in fairly simple decorations. Usually composed of brass, there is some sort of star placed in the center, occasionally in a different metal or color for contrast. But with the tompions being polished daily, they stand out when compared to the haze gray color of the rest of the ship.

(Editor's Note: This blog post was compiled and written by HRNM Educator Elijah Palmer.)

1913 Live Fire Exercises in the Chesapeake Bay: Chicken Farmers Not Pleased...Again

Atlantic Fleet battleships steaming from Hampton Roads towards the
"Southern Drill Grounds" in the Chesapeake Bay, 1913

We have previously posted about Maryland poultry farmers accusing the Navy of killing over 70,000 chickens during live fire exercise off Tangier Island in 1911. The farmers claimed that the big battleship guns caused such a concussion shock on shore that the poor chickens keeled over and died. The Navy denied having anything to do with the alleged chicken massacre. Two years later, the Navy was back with more ships and bigger guns.

The Atlantic Fleet at the Southern Drill Grounds as seen
from the cage mast of USS Kansas (BB-21)

The operation was one of the largest Naval exercises to date.  Navy planners plotted out a series of static target gun shoots and war games between ships in an area they designated as the "Southern Drill Grounds" in the Chesapeake Bay.  Planners preferred the Chesapeake Bay due to the fact that it provided favorable weather conditions. They wanted the water to be somewhat rough to give gunners the chance to practice in choppy water, but not so rough as to cancel the exercise.   


USS Kansas unloads her 12-inch guns at a stationary target

In late March 1913, the Atlantic Fleet arrived near Tangier Island in full force. Rear Admiral Charles Johnson Badger led a force that consisted of the new dreadnought-type battleships USS Wyoming (BB-32), Utah (BB-31), Delaware (BB-28), and South Carolina (BB-26), along with the pre-dreadnought-type battleships USS Kansas (BB-21), Minnesota(BB-22), Georgia (BB-15), New Jersey (BB-16), and Nebraska (BB-12). In addition to the battleships, two divisions of torpedo boat and torpedo boat destroyers joined the battle force, along with several support ships such as coal tenders and store ships. 

12-inch shell explosions during live fire drills

The fleet conducted several rounds of live fire shoots with their main guns in late March and early April. The torpedo boat divisions practiced torpedo attack runs on the battleships during the middle of the night. Several senior naval officers served as observers and kept score of hits and misses of the stationary targets and determined the success of the torpedo boats against the battleships. Witnessed by several U.S. Senators and Secretary of the Josephus Daniels, the exercises were by all accounts a success.

With their round of shooting done, officers on board Kansas
observe other battleships' firings. 

That is not how local Marylanders saw it. Like the 1911 operation, Maryland civilians who lived near Tangier Island claimed the battleship gun shoots were having a devastating affect on their town and their agribusiness. One newspaper reported that buildings in Chrisfield, Maryland had their shattered windows and cracked foundations. The newspaper even claimed some of their chimneys were knocked off. In addition, Chrisfield watermen claimed the concussion waves killed thousands of fish.  They were also afraid of getting hit by stray shells. Local poultry farmers claimed that eggs cracked and were hatching prematurely. The Navy had no comment on these allegations.

U.S. Battleships in Hampton Roads, 1918: A Four Scene Storyboard

Included in the museum's collection are these four postcards shown below.  The postcards show a U.S. battle fleet at anchor in Hampton Roads, seen from the perfectly manicured grass of Fortress Monroe. The artist drew all four postcards from the same vantage point.  The fleet is depicted during four different times of the day: noon, afternoon, midnight, and early morning.  At first glance, the images look the same.  This would imply its publisher, the Asheville Postcard Company, was lazy and simply touched up one image.  There are, however, subtle differences.  Ships move in and out of the harbor, implying four unique drawings. 

Acknowledging the fact that the battleships are painted in a wartime (slate grey) paint scheme, the ships anchored in the harbor suggests the postcard's year is 1918.  During that year, the Navy mobilized and deployed to Hampton Roads.  Context clues give us some indication which specific ships the author was painting.  The battleship in the middle (in front of the lighthouse) is believed to be USS Wyoming (BB-32).  Other ships in the picture appear to be an older type of armored cruiser (a Pennsylvania-class armored cruiser).  Three "pre-dreadnought" battleships, such as USS New Jersey (BB-16) are also included in the images. Several  of these "Great White Fleet"-era warships, like New Jersey,  were utilized for convoy escort, training, and harbor defense duty.  If this is the case, this would not be the "U.S. Battleship Fleet" noted by the cards.  Rather, it would likely be a reserve squadron or one attached to the Naval Overseas Transport Service.

1917 U.S. Navy's Battleship Force

You might have noticed the picture in the background of this blog. This is a 1917 picture of one of the U.S. Navy's divisions in its "Battleship Force" in Hampton Roads. The lead ship at right is the battleship USS New York (BB-34). Other ships in the picture are believed to be USS Nevada (BB-36), USS Delaware (BB-28), USS Wyoming (BB-32), and USS Florida (BB-30). (USS Texas (BB-35) and USS Arkansas (BB-33) are other possibilities. Any help in identifying the vessels would be most appreciated.)

This battleship division was one of four such units in the U.S. Navy. These divisions made up the bulk of the Fleet's firepower and were the pride of the Navy. The ships rotated between Hampton Roads, New York, and various training grounds in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, and Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. With the Navy considering a place for its first ever “Operating Base” in 1917, it was pictures like this that demonstrated why Hampton Roads was ultimately chosen. The harbor was able to handle several of the largest ships in the fleet with plenty of maneuvering room.